Chandrayaan-3’s rover Pragyan will emerge from the lander three-and-a-half hours or upto a day since lander Vikram touched down on the lunar surface, depending on the conditions.

This rover will move on Moon’s surface for next 14 days and perform a variety of experiments witht the payloads on the Vikram lander

ILSA ( Instrument for Lunar Seismic Activity):This will study quakes on the surface of the moon

ChaSTE (Surface Thermo-Physical Experiment): To study thermos physical behaviour of moon surface.

LASER Retroreflector Array:

This payload is of NASA, where idea is to study real time distance between earth and moon

APXS (Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer: To study Moons soil LIBS (Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscope)

Soil study RAMBHA (Radio Anatomy of Moon Bound Hypersensitive ionosphere and Atmosphere): To study the near surface plasma activities on the moon.

LP (Langmuir probe): To study plasma activities

SHAPE (Spectro-polarimetry of HAbitable Planet Earth): To study the spectro-polarimetric signatures of the earth.

Vikram would have kicked up a large cloud of lunar dust when it landed. The dust will not settle down anytime soon due to the weaker gravitational force on the moon. So the rover will wait just over three hours for the dust to scatter away on its own momentum.

As ISRO would want to avoid the fine lunar dust coating the cameras and other sensitive instruments, so it decided to wait for over three hours to ensure the dust moves away.

The rover Pragyan will first extend its solar arrays and roll out with a wire connected to Vikram. The wire will be snapped once the rover is stable on the lunar surface.

Pragyan will then start its scientific missions.

Chandrayaan-3 Mission:
'India,
I reached my destination
and you too!'
: Chandrayaan-3

Chandrayaan-3 has successfully
soft-landed on the moon !.

Congratulations, India!#Chandrayaan_3#Ch3

— ISRO (@isro) August 23, 2023

Powered Descent:

After a minor course correction, Chandrayaan-3 has successfully soft-landed on the moon, Congratulations ISRO and India!

Vertical descent phase 2 hovering goes normally. Re-targeting is on at 50 m from the surface

Vertical descent phase 1 goes normally. Lander now at 300 m from the lunar surface.

Lander is at 1 km from the lunar surface in the final vertical descent phase.

Lander enters into fine breaking phase, with the sensors performing normally, the phase extends for 3 minutes, and the lander will be 800 m from the lunar surface and the horizontal velocity will be brought to zero.

The lander is now 7 km from the moon’s surface, with a horizontal velocity of 300m/s.

After the rough breaking phase, the lander enters into the attitude holding phase.

In the current phase, the current altitude is at 14 km, at a horizontal velocity of 557 m/s and a vertical velocity of about 71 m/s.

In the current phase, the current altitude is at 20 km, at a horizontal velocity of 1100 m/s and a vertical velocity of about 30 m/s.

The Vikram Lander begins its powered descent nearly 228 km into the 745 km rough breaking phase. The velocity of the lander module will be reduced from 1680 m/s to 358 m/s.

After a 40-day journey starting from the Sathish Dhawan Space Center in Sriharikota, the Indian Space Research Organisation’s (ISRO) Chandrayaan-3 mission is now preparing to land. If all goes well, the Vikram lander should make a soft lunar landing at 6.04 PM IST on August 23. You can watch a live stream of the landing below.

Ahead of the launch, ISRO said it is ready to initiate the mission’s automatic landing sequence. The space agency plans to do it at 5.44 PM IST. From this point onwards, the Vikram lander will use its onboard computers and logic to try to make a soft landing on the Moon.

‘All set to initiate the Automatic Landing Sequence (ALS). Awaiting the arrival of Lander Module (LM) at the designated point, around 17:44 Hrs. IST. Upon receiving the ALS command, the LM activates the throttleable engines for powered descent. The mission operations team will keep confirming the sequential execution of commands.’ ISRO updates on its official X account.

ISRO’s Vikram Lander Module will land around 6:04 pm on moon today. Later, it will release the Pragyan rover.

The real test of the mission will begin at the last leg of the landing. Prior to 20 minutes before landing, ISRO will initiate Automatic Landing Sequence (ALS). It will enable Vikram LM to take charge and use its on-board computers and logic to identify a favourable spot and make a soft-landing on the lunar surface.

Experts say that the final 15 to 20 minutes will be highly crucial for the success of the mission when Chandrayaan-3’s Vikram lander will make its soft landing. Indians throughout the country and across the world are praying for Chandrayaan-3 Landing today.

…. and
The moon as captured by the
Lander Imager Camera 4
on August 20, 2023.#Chandrayaan_3 #Ch3 pic.twitter.com/yPejjLdOSS

— ISRO (@isro) August 22, 2023

Given the history of India’s second lunar mission, which failed during the last 20 minutes before landing, ISRO is extra-cautious this time in the process. Due to high risk to the spacecraft minutes before moon landing, the duration is dubbed by many as ’20 minutes of terror.’

During this phase, the whole process will become autonomous, where Vikram lander ignitedits own engines at the right times and altitudes.

Dopamine: The “Feel Good” Neurotransmitter

Ever heard of dopamine? It’s our brain’s star player when it comes to pleasure. Whether it’s the joy from a bite of your favourite chocolate or the thrill of a roller-coaster, dopamine plays a pivotal role. This neurotransmitter, a sort of chemical messenger in our brains, signals that something enjoyable is happening. Kevin from Pleasure Store explains: “It’s like our brain’s own internal applause every time we encounter a pleasurable experience”.

But how does this work? The brain’s neural circuits consist of intricate pathways that transmit information. The reward pathway is particularly significant when discussing pleasure. It includes major neural regions such as the ventral tegmental area, the nucleus accumbens, and the prefrontal cortex. Whenever we experience something pleasurable, dopamine gets released and travels through this specific pathway, signalling the sensation of enjoyment to our consciousness.

However, not all rewards are created equal. Natural rewards, such as food or bonding with loved ones, give us a pleasant dopamine rush, but it’s a balanced and sustainable one. On the flip side, artificial rewards like drugs can flood the brain with an overwhelming amount of dopamine. It’s akin to a sugar rush – incredibly intense but not healthy in the long run.

Endorphins: The Body’s Natural Painkiller

Endorphins are another chemical that influences how we experience pleasure. These act as our body’s natural painkillers and euphoria producers. Have you ever wondered why, after an intense workout or a long run, you feel invigorated? That’s endorphins at work. 

This natural boost is often referred to as the “runner’s high,” but it’s not exclusive to running. Any form of physical exertion can trigger this delightful feeling, giving us another reason to love exercise.

Beyond just feeling good, endorphins have a deeper evolutionary purpose. Consider our ancestors hunting in the wild. An injury while chasing prey would be detrimental. Here, endorphins played a crucial role, numbing the pain and allowing them to push through. Today, we might not be hunting, but these chemicals still help us navigate life’s physical challenges.

The Role of Pleasure in Learning and Behaviour

1) Operant Conditioning and Positive Reinforcement

Behaviour isn’t just random. It’s a product of experience and learning. And pleasure has a significant role in shaping it. For instance, rewarding a dog with a treat for a trick well done makes it more likely for the dog to repeat it. This is a classic example of operant conditioning.

In simpler terms, our brain remembers the outcomes of our actions. When an action leads to pleasure, it reinforces the behaviour, making it more likely to be repeated. 

Children learning, adults picking up habits, even birds building nests – it’s a universal principle. Our brains are built to seek out what feels good and steer clear of what doesn’t.

2) The Pursuit of Ever-Increasing Pleasure

Yet, it’s not always a straightforward path. Humans have a knack for adaptation. While this trait has its advantages, it can be a tricky game when it comes to pleasure. You buy a new phone, and it thrills you. But give it a few months, and you’re eyeing the next model. 

This phenomenon, where we quickly return to a stable level of happiness despite major positive changes in our lives, is known as the “hedonic treadmill.” It’s like being on a constant quest, always chasing the next big thing for that spike of joy.

This adaptation has its roots in survival. Our ancestors needed to be constantly alert, never too content, always on the lookout for potential threats or opportunities. However, in today’s age of instant gratification and endless choices, it poses unique challenges.

The Risks of Overindulgence

Addiction and the Hijacking of the Pleasure Centers

While our brain’s reward system is designed for our benefit, it’s also vulnerable to exploitation. Let’s consider addiction, a prime example of pleasure going awry. Whether it’s substances like alcohol or behaviours such as gambling, the common thread is the excessive stimulation of the brain’s pleasure centers.

Initially, indulging in these activities offers an unparalleled high, a dopamine deluge if you will. But over time, the brain starts to adjust. It becomes reliant on these external sources for its dopamine fix, dulling its response to everyday pleasures. 

It’s like listening to your favourite song on repeat. Initially, it’s euphoric, but with continuous exposure, it loses its charm. The brain’s response to overindulgence is similar. It craves more of the substance or behaviour to achieve the same level of pleasure, leading to a vicious cycle.

The Balance Between Seeking Pleasure and Avoiding Pain

According to Frances Kelleher Coaching, life is about balance. As much as pleasure drives us, it’s crucial to understand its boundaries. We are, by nature, hedonistic creatures, forever on the quest for the next pleasurable experience. Yet, this perpetual pursuit can sometimes overshadow the simple joys and lead to potential harm.

The golden rule is moderation. Whether it’s food, entertainment, work, or relationships, the key is to find a middle ground. It’s not about stifling pleasure but understanding that too much of anything can be detrimental. By being in tune with our needs and aware of our limits, we can enjoy life’s offerings without the risk of overindulgence.

Fortunately, you’ve come to the right place! Here, we will break down the best types of Manitoba farm fertilizer, setting you up for a successful growing season ahead and financial savings down the line.

First, Clean Your Storage Bins

When you’re switching fertilizers, it’s vital that you thoroughly clean your storage bins of the old product; sloppily mixing two fertilizers that have non-compatible components can cause a harmful chemical reaction. 

For example, if the fertilizer contains ammonium nitrate and it’s mixed with flammable materials, it can ignite. Contact between urea, urea blends and ammonium nitrate can result in the fertilizer onboarding moisture and turning to mush.

We don’t need to explain that letting fertilizer go to waste represents an expensive financial loss.

Different types of fertilizer should be used throughout the growing journey to protect seedlings, support crops and nurture the soil.

Choosing a Starter Fertilizer

Starter fertilizers with a high salt content are actively damaging the soil in Manitoba at this very moment. Soil with an abnormally high level of salt works against fledgling crops by reducing their ability to uptake nutrients and water — as such, crops exhibit symptoms of drought and battle to reach maturity.

For these reasons, a low-salt starter fertilizer is a wise choice for your seedlings. It will not only reduce your input costs each year, but it will also improve crop yield while protecting your soil — a necessity during this crucial growing period.

When you’re choosing a low-salt starter, you have the choice between dry and liquid.

• Liquid Starter: Look for a liquid starter that contains 24% phosphate, 6% nitrogen and 1% sulphur. It should have a phosphate analysis of 80% Orthophosphate. Orthophosphate is immediately available to the plant regardless of the temperature — it doesn’t need warmth to activate. This is incredibly beneficial to farmers in Manitoba, where the soil can stay cool for some time.
• Dry Starter: Look for a seed row-safe dry starter with a complete package of macro and micronutrients. Often the availability of phosphates in starter fertilizers can fall below 80%. By looking for a row-safe, full nutrient package, you’re ensuring that all of these beneficial elements are available to the plant and don’t get restricted by abnormally high pH levels in the soil.

Look for a Foliar Fertilizer

This might soon be necessary for farmers in Manitoba as the Canadian government aims to reduce soil-applied fertilizers by 20% in the future. This isn’t a bad thing. Feeding crops using the foliar method can be fourteen times more effective than the soil-applied method.

A foliar fertilizer — again, with a low salt content — will actively work to protect the crop and soil by ensuring that the right balance of beneficial bacteria and fungi is present, which helps stabilize the soil.

Store Your Fertilizer Properly

Last, make sure your fertilizers are securely stored. This is especially important for farmers in Manitoba, where seasonal conditions are wide and unruly. Fertilizer hopper bins and tanks are crucial to protecting this vital asset.

To learn more about choosing the right fertilizer, connect with a local farm store staffed by agricultural experts — you’ll undoubtedly reap the rewards.

Disclaimer:

Qrius does not recommend or endorse any specific tests, physicians, products, procedures, opinions or other information that may be mentioned on this website. Reliance on any information appearing on this website is solely at your own risk.

This article does not endorse or express the views of Qrius and/or any of its staff.

Luna-25, which was designed to study the unexplored parts of the moon for a year, failed even before landing, as it suffered glitches during a pre-landing procedure just above the lunar surface. The spacecraft encountered a catastrophic failure shortly after a critical manoeuvre, as it was being positioned into its pre-landing orbit on Saturday.

Declaring the mission failed, Roscosmos, said, ‘At about 14:57 Moscow time, communication with the Luna-25 spacecraft was interrupted. The measures taken on August 19 and 20 to search for the device and get in contact with it did not produce any results. Due to the deviation of the actual parameters of the impulse from the calculated ones, the device switched to an off-design orbit and ceased to exist as a result of a collision with the lunar surface.’

Luna-25, according to Roscosmos, spun into an uncontrolled orbit before crashing into the moon’s surface.

Luna-25 was supposed to land on the south pole of the Moon on Monday, August 2.

Russia’s objectives with Luna-25 were the same as India’s, to find if the unexplored region actually had some of the elements needed to process to form water. It was designed to collect samples from nearly 15 centimeters below the surface and conduct in-situ chemical analysis. The findings could have ushered in a new era of astrobiology and chemistry.

The south side of the moon is being looked at as a catapult to further exploration into the solar system, with the US, China, Japan, and Europe, all planning to go to the moon and study it in their own ways, from the US ‘Artemis manned missions to China’s Chang’e spacecraft.

If successful, these missions are bound to have both scientific benefits as well as cultural significance.

Between 1969 and 1972, six NASA missions took place in which twelve people walked on the surface of the moon, all of them men.

At the time, for such a high-risk mission, the most experienced astronauts were required and there were no women at NASA who had suitable test flight experience.

For a long time, space was viewed as an industry primarily for men, and it wasn’t until 1978 that NASA selected its first female astronauts.

As of March 2022, seventy-five women have been to space, and the Artemis moon missions will serve as a reminder of changing times, as NASA selects the first female astronauts to return to the moon with manned missions.

All eyes for now are on India, which is on the cusp of landing the Chandrayaan-3 in the same region.

While the lander of the Chandrayaan-2 mission had failed to make a soft touchdown on lunar surface, its orbiter is still in lunar orbit and helping to ensure the success of Chandrayaan-3. In fact, it has already played an important role in identifying a relatively safe landing spot for Chandrayaan-3.

Armed with learnings from the Chandrayaan-2 mission and with smooth progress thus far, ISRO is confident the Chandrayaan-3’s ‘Vikram lander’ will have a successful turn this time around.

The Thermodynamics of Refrigeration

Thermodynamics is all about energy in motion and transformation. It involves the study of heat, temperature, and the flow of energy. When it comes to the science of refrigeration, it’s vital to understand the second law of thermodynamics. This law states that heat energy always moves from a place of high temperature to a place of lower temperature.

Imagine a steaming cup of tea on a cold window ledge. Eventually, the tea loses its warmth as its heat disperses into the cooler surroundings. This natural movement is pivotal for refrigeration. Your fridge doesn’t generate cold per se. Instead, it masterfully removes heat.

This is where the refrigeration cycle comes into play, a continuous dance of a substance known as the refrigerant. This substance can change its states easily between gas and liquid, making it the star of our cooling systems. It makes its way through the different parts of the refrigerator, manipulating its temperature and pressure in a choreographed sequence, ensuring that the food inside stays fresh and our drinks remain chilled to perfection.

Parts of the Refrigerator and What They Do

The first act begins with the compressor. Here, refrigerant gas, having absorbed heat from the fridge’s inside, is compressed. Compressing the gas means its molecules are squeezed together, causing it to heat up. It’s akin to a crowded train carriage during rush hour, with everyone jostling against each other, generating warmth.

Next, the heated refrigerant travels to the condenser, which is usually located at the back or bottom of your fridge. In this coil-like structure, the refrigerant releases the heat it had previously absorbed, causing it to cool and condense back into a liquid. This is reminiscent of our earlier tea example – only in reverse. The heat from the refrigerant is dissipated into the surrounding air, much like a radiator dispels warmth in a room.

But the show doesn’t stop there. This liquid refrigerant now makes a dramatic transition through the expansion device. This tiny component reduces the pressure of the refrigerant, causing it to cool rapidly. If you’ve ever felt the coolness when spraying an aerosol, you’ve experienced a similar principle.

Inside the main cavity of your fridge is the evaporator. This component lets the cold refrigerant absorb heat from the items inside the fridge, allowing it to evaporate back into a gas. It’s a continuous loop, a cyclical dance of energy transformation that keeps our perishables fresh.

You can imagine that a refrigerator is less a ‘maker of cold’ and more a ‘remover of heat’. It’s responsible for maintaining the intricate balance of energy transfers, ensuring that the steak remains frozen and the butter, spreadable.

Modern Advancements in Refrigeration

Beyond the classic cycle of refrigeration, the past few decades have witnessed an evolution that combines efficiency with sustainability. The challenge for engineers and designers lies in making a system that’s been in existence for ages even better.

Enhanced Insulation

The first striking difference in modern refrigerators is their design and insulation. Compare the boxy, energy-hungry fridge of the 80s to today’s sleek and efficient models. The transformation isn’t merely aesthetic. It’s functional. Today’s refrigerators are created with superior insulation materials that act as effective barriers, keeping the cold air in and the warmer external air out. By enhancing this thermal efficiency, refrigerators now use less energy to maintain their internal temperatures.

But why does this matter? For starters, energy efficiency reduces our collective carbon footprint. In its lifetime, each energy-efficient fridge can reduce greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to taking a car off the road for a year. As an added bonus, consumers benefit from reduced electricity bills.

Environment-Friendly Refrigerants

Energy consumption is just one facet of the equation. The choice of refrigerant – that magical substance that dances between gas and liquid – has seen a revolutionary shift. Earlier refrigerants, particularly CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) and HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), were notorious for their environmental impact. CFCs, especially, were culprits in depleting the ozone layer, that precious shield protecting Earth from harmful UV radiation.

The global response was swift and decisive. International agreements, notably the Montreal Protocol, championed the phasing out of these damaging substances. Today’s refrigerators are filled with more environmentally benign refrigerants. Innovators worldwide have raced to find alternatives, balancing refrigeration efficacy with environmental concern.

Make a Cool Change Today

With the intricate science and the leaps of technological advancements laid out, there’s a role for each of us to play. It’s more than just understanding the marvel and science behind refrigeration, but about making conscious choices that benefit not only ourselves but the planet as a whole.

Next time you’re in the market for a fridge, consider its energy rating and the type of refrigerant used. According to ChillCooler, the onus doesn’t solely lie on buying new. Even maintaining older fridges, ensuring seals are tight and systems are functioning optimally, can make a world of difference.

There’s a certain empowerment in knowledge. By understanding the ever-reliable refrigerator humming away in our kitchens, we’re better equipped to make choices that can reduce our footprint and make a lasting plant on the planet.

It can be a tool for delivering game-based education in science subjects. VR can help increase learning interest in students. It can help create curiosity in learners and understand concepts fast. The benefits of VR in education can be immense.

Why should we use virtual reality in education? 

VR in education makes learning both immersive and experimental. Science students need to learn to experiment with things to get different outcomes. When they use VR, even the most complex concepts become easier to understand. 

The technology provides a platform for building greater knowledge. When it is applied properly, VR can transform university learning experiences and student engagement. Educators should integrate it into education due to the benefits it provides. 

Virtual reality is a resourceful technology that improves learning experiences. When writing papers, a student should consider using online resources for help. There are people who write essays for money and are always willing to help. A student can engage people who write essays for money when they want to get better grades or save time. They are another important resource for college and university assignment writing. 

Improving learner engagement and inspiration. When teaching about the solar system, for example, all that a student can do is imagine. When VR is applied, they get immersed in the entire system. They become more engaged and inspired by the experience. 

Better memory. College learners sometimes forget what they learn fast. VR immerses them into almost real-life situations. Many days later, they can still remember the topic and the lessons learned. 

Boosting course outcomes. Educators can boost course outcomes by giving students writing assignments. VR can help boost the outcomes to higher levels.  

Building student socialization and collaboration. Collaboration between teachers and students as well as between students is essential to learning in college. To enhance their mental health, students also require socializing. VR in college is one of the ways to enhance collaboration and socialization. 

How VR is used in education

More and more schools are integrating VR into their science courses. VR Technology can take them to different species’ habitats, the molecular world, or the electronic world. Virtual reality can be used in the classroom in different ways. 

Investigate the world of science. Immerse students into the world of science. Let them experience the animal and plant kingdom in an entirely new way. Let them investigate different species and how they depend on each other. 

Understanding internal human structure. They may explore the internal organs of humans and how each organ functions. If they are learning chemistry, help them explore the structures of chemicals and their properties. It will give them a memorable hands-on experience. 

Understanding concepts. Sometimes it is hard for a student to understand how some concepts work. Concepts such as friction, floatation, gravity, and rotation. Immerse the learners into 3D environments where they can experience the concepts at work.

Learning science language. Science language in the university is different from the common language. Sometimes it might look complicated. Help students by immersing into a VR lesson where they learn science language. They will understand it better and will never forget it.

Challenges of integrating VR technology into science education

Although educators understand how virtual reality helps in education, they must be ready to deal with the challenges. At the same time, they should be prepared to leverage every opportunity it provides. 

• Teacher training. Educators need to be trained to use VR in a science classroom. However, such training is often lacking in many institutions. This leaves teachers to experiment on using the technology which can be tough.
• Implementation costs. The initial implementation costs can be high and schools work with budgets. The university or college might consider implementing the project in phases.
• Technical issues. Students and teachers frequently lack the skills necessary to handle technical problems. If they do happen, they must wait for experts to arrive and fix them.

VR implementation and success in a science classroom

The university or college administrators need to work as a team with the teachers. They must agree on what needs to be done and set aside a budget. What follows should be teacher training. They must agree on the science content to use in VR and to use it. 

The future for VR in science education stands strong. Its adoption in colleges is increasing. Innovators and developers are improving the technology. It might be normal in science courses in the future. It will provide learners with a better experience, and attract more students in science courses. It will help increase student interactions and engagement. 

Conclusion

The use of VR in education is becoming popular. When applied in science courses, it can help improve understanding. Learners can become more curious and get inspired more. The technology faces different implementation and use challenges. They can be overcome by good planning and training of teachers. 

Chandrayaan-3 Mission:

‘Thanks for the ride, mate! ’
said the Lander Module (LM).

LM is successfully separated from the Propulsion Module (PM)

LM is set to descend to a slightly lower orbit upon a deboosting planned for tomorrow around 1600 Hrs., IST.

Now, has3⃣ … pic.twitter.com/rJKkPSr6Ct

— ISRO (@isro) August 17, 2023

The spacecraft is in an orbit of 153 km x 163 km after the firing on August 16, 2023 and the lander module has now successfully detached from the propulsion module, setting the stage for the moon landing on August 23.

So, in an historic first for the country, India has three satellites around the moon at once, the Chandrayaan-2 orbiter, the Chandrayaan-3 orbiter and the Vikram lander.

With just a week left for Chandrayaam-3’s moon landing, Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) on August 16 successfully carried out the fifth and final orbit reduction manoeuvre.

The manoeuvre which commenced at 8.30 a.m. was performed from ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC) in Bengaluru.

‘Today’s successful firing, needed for a short duration, has put Chandrayaan-3 into an orbit of 153 km x 163 km, as intended.With this, the lunar bound manoeuvre are completed,’ ISRO said on August 16.

On Monday, the spacecraft had achieved a near-circular orbit around the moon. 

As per the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), Chandrayaan-3 made the significant move between 11:30 am to 12:30 pm on August 14.

‘Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft undergoes another maneuver, achieves near-circular orbit around moon,’ ISRO had posted on X (formerly Twitter).

As the mission progresses, a series of manoeuvres are being conducted by ISRO to gradually reduce Chandrayaan-3’s orbit and position it over the lunar poles.

This was the final orbit reduction step to bring the spacecraft closer to the Moon, after which the landing module, comprising the lander and rover successfully broke away from the propulsion module.

After the completion of the five orbit reduction manoeuvres ISRO said that it was gearing up for the next most crucial operations o.e the lander separation today.

The lander is expected to undergo a ‘deboost’ (the process of slowing down) now and make a soft landing on the south-polar region of the Moon on August 23.

Chandrayaan-3 had entered into lunar orbit or the Moon’s orbit on August 5, after being launched on July 4.

‘It’s time for preparations as the Propulsion Module and the Lander Module gear up for their separate journeys. Separation of the Lander Module from the Propulsion Module is planned for August 17, 2023,’ the space agency had said prior to the manoeuvre.

Following that, a series of complex braking manoeuvres will be executed to facilitate the soft landing in the South Polar region of the Moon. The lander is expected to touch down on the moon surface at 5.47 p.m.

Chandrayaan-3 is a follow-on mission to Chandrayaan-2 to demonstrate end-to-end capability in safe landing and roving on the lunar surfacem, developing and demonstrating new technologies required for inter-planetary missions and to conduct in-situ scientific experiments.

It comprises an indigenous propulsion module, lander module, and a rover. The lander will have the capability to soft land at a specified lunar site and deploy the rover that will carry out the analysis of the Moon’s surface during the course of its mobility.

The propulsion module will carry the lander and rover configuration till 100 km lunar orbit.

The propulsion module has Spectro-polarimetry of Habitable Planet Earth (SHAPE) payload to study the spectral and polarimetric measurements of earth from the lunar orbit.

This article has been updated.

If you have curly hair, you know that every day is a new adventure. What will my hair do today? Why does it curl better on some days than others? And even those without naturally curly hair might notice their hair curling – or, let’s be honest, frizzing – a bit on humid summer days.

As a person with curly hair, I’m always looking for the best way to care for and understand my hair. As a chemist, I’m interested in the science behind how my hair behaves at the molecular level. There are different hair types, from straight to curly, and they behave differently depending on their structure. But what hairs are made up of at the molecular level is the same.

Hair structure

Hair begins growing under the skin’s surface, but it’s what happens after it pokes through the skin that determines whether you have a good hair day or a bad one.

Each hair can have three layers – the medulla, the cortex and the cuticle. You can think of each hair like a tiny tree trunk.

The innermost, or core layer, is the medulla. This layer holds moisture, much like the pith in the center of a tree trunk. This layer is also very fragile, but only thick or coarse hairs contain this part – so those with thin or blond hair typically don’t have the medulla layer in their hairs.

Next is the cortex, which makes up most of a hair and is analogous to the wood of a tree. The cortex is made up of spring-shaped protein molecules that lie in parallel rows in a cylindrical bundle. The exact shape of that bundle is determined by the hair follicle, which is a pore on the skin from where the hair grows.

How the hair grows out of the follicle influences the distribution of its proteins. So a straight follicle produces straight hair and a curved follicle produces curly hair. The less evenly distributed the squiggly proteins are, the curlier the hair. Your genetic code also plays a role in the shape of the cortex and, therefore, the shape and thickness of your hair.

Lastly, the outermost layer of a hair is called the cuticle. The cuticle is like the bark of a tree – and it even looks like bark under a microscope.

It’s the cuticle’s job to protect the cortex, but the cuticle is very easily damaged. Imagine lifting or removing the bark from a tree. Doing so would leave the wood inside susceptible to moisture loss, exposure to the environment and damage.

The same is true for each hair. When the cuticle is damaged from brushing, chemicals, wind or heat, the proteins of the cortex have a much more difficult time lying smoothly together. This means they can lose moisture, gain moisture, fray like a rope – this causes split ends – and even break. All these factors can influence how your hair looks at any given moment.

Hair in the summer

So what does all of this have to do with humidity? Well, hair proteins contain many permanent chemical bonds. Only chemical treatments like perms or straightening can change these bonds. But there’s another natural phenomenon that keeps the protein molecules in the cortex in line – something called hydrogen bonding.

The long, stringy protein molecules in the cortex contain tiny positive and negative charges throughout their structure. Because opposite charges attract each other, entire rows of proteins can be attracted to each other like tiny, weak magnets.

Heating or wetting your hair breaks the magnetlike attraction between these rows of proteins. So, heat and water can rearrange the proteins in your hair by breaking the hydrogen bonds that keep their structure together. https://www.youtube.com/embed/RSRiywp9v9w?wmode=transparent&start=0 How hydrogen bonds form.

Water is one of the best molecules at hydrogen bonding. So when a molecule of water has the opportunity to hydrogen bond with something, it will.

In your hair, water can form hydrogen bonds between the rows of proteins in your hair’s cortex. It is the extent to which this happens that determines your hair’s fate.

When just a little water enters the hair, like it might in lower humidity conditions or when the cuticle is healthy and able to keep too much water out of the cortex, your hair may curl. When humidity is high, or the cuticle is damaged, more water enters the hair. Too much water can swell and crack the cuticle, making hair look frizzy.

Many people consider high humidity to be the problem behind frizzy hair, but styling your hair under high humidity and then entering a less humid environment can also be an issue. Water molecules leaving the hair’s cortex can also lead to a change in hair behavior.

Treating summer hair

A damaged cuticle layer leaves the cortex more susceptible to water molecules creeping in or out and wreaking havoc on your hair. Anytime water molecules travel in or out, your hair’s structure suffers and your hairstyle may be ruined. When the cuticle is healthy, it can protect the cortex, making your hair less susceptible to changes in the weather or environment. The bottom line is that a healthy hair cuticle helps keep proper moisture in the cortex.

Heat from styling tools is the most common culprit behind damaged cuticles, but chemical treatments, brushing, sun and wind can also cause damage. Avoiding these activities can help, but some things, such as exposure to the sun, can’t be avoided.

You can also take care of your scalp – a clean, healthy scalp leads to healthy hair cuticles. Using moisturizing products on your hair can help maintain cuticle health as well. Oils and moisturizing treatments can even restore damaged cuticles. The good news is that by understanding your hair and treating it well, you can help prevent the undesired effects of humidity.

Tara S. Carpenter, Principle Lecturer, University of Maryland, Baltimore County

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Unraveling the scientific essence of canvas printing is a journey that promises to illuminate the path toward crafting impeccable custom prints.

Understanding the Art and Science of Canvas Printing

Embedded within the core of canvas printing is the fusion of historical artistry and modern technological advancements. This merging of past and present breathes life into images, converting digital visions into tangible realities. 

Exploring canvas printing’s historical lineage takes us on a journey through time, forging a link between traditional canvas painting and contemporary digital art. 

A paradigm shift is discernible, with canvas printing outshining conventional methods. Its unique canvas texture sets it apart, adding depth and character that paper could never replicate. 

The array of canvas types – cotton, polyester, and their blends – offers a palette of options, each contributing distinct characteristics to the final creation.

Pigment Technology and the Alchemy of Colors

At the heart of canvas printing’s allure lies its enchanting ability to metamorphose pixels into a vivid spectrum of colors. 

The pursuit of accurate color replication is akin to artistic alchemy, converting digital code into tangible hues. Color models, namely RGB and CMYK, serve as the bridge that spans the digital realm to the physical canvas. 

A fundamental choice between dye-based and pigment-based inks emerges as a pivotal crossroads, dictating the print’s longevity and vibrancy. The interplay of diverse pigments with the canvas substrate ushers in a realm of permanence, where colors remain untarnished over time.

Precision, Detail, and the Dance of Pixels

Quality finds its anchor in the trifecta of resolution, DPI, and image fidelity. Resolution is the precursor of detail, while DPI orchestrates the symphony of dots, each contributing to the visual crescendo. 

The harmony of precision and detail spawns an immersive experience where intricacies materialize. The labyrinth of selecting the perfect DPI for varying canvas dimensions navigates the fine line between richness and file weight. Image quality, the conductor in this symphony, commingles with the canvas’s tactile surface, sculpting an amalgam of senses.

Crafting Prints: Technology and Techniques

The realm of canvas printing unfolds through diverse techniques, each with prowess. The limelight shines on inkjet printing, celebrated for its versatility and accuracy. Droplets of ink form a pixel tapestry on the canvas, a meticulous dance that transpires layer by layer. 

Print heads, nozzles, and droplet sizes partake in a ballet that crafts lifelike representations. Amidst this dance, color management orchestrates the hues, ensuring the digital vision remains intact in the tangible masterpiece.

In the realm of canvas printing techniques, where artistic finesse and technological innovation intertwine, there’s an exciting avenue that empowers creators to not only explore the intricacies of canvas printing but also turn their creations into thriving businesses. 

Companies like Gelato offer a unique opportunity to design and sell custom print-on-demand canvas products. This platform allows artists and entrepreneurs to bring their visions to life, leveraging advanced printing technology and a global network. 

Material, Texture, and Canvas’s Role in the Narrative

Canvas material, a silent protagonist, significantly shapes the print narrative. Its identity bestows distinctiveness upon the final rendition, influencing texture, sheen, and ink’s embrace. Textures spanning the spectrum, from gentle caresses to pronounced embraces, render a visual melody. 

Equipping canvas with a receptive aura requires the overture of coating and priming, a stage where the canvas embraces the impending ink with open arms.

Colors Calibrated: An Artistic Enchantment

The enchantment of precise color replication unfolds through meticulous calibration. It is the harmonious interplay of colors, where each shade is a note in a symphony. Color profiles emerge as the guardian angels of calibration, ensuring that the colors birthed by the printer mirror those dreamt in the digital realm. The rhythm of calibration reverberates in the ICC profiles, fostering coherence across devices and safeguarding consistent outcomes.

Absorption Chronicles: Inks and Canvas’s Intimate Affair

The canvas’s embrace of inks unveils an intimate affair that paints stories through absorption and drying. A canvas’s innate characteristics, like a lover’s disposition, dictate how it absorbs and clings to inks. 

Achieving equilibrium between absorption and drying is an artistic tightrope walk, a trapeze act where vibrant hues and ink trails mingle without marring. Innovations in drying techniques emerge as the guardians of permanence, warding off color transmutations and enhancing the print’s enduring allure.

Guardians of Resilience: Finishes and Protective Aegis

Vigilant sentinels guarding against the onslaught of time, protective coatings enrobe canvas prints. These shrouds are impervious shields that defy the elements – ultraviolet rays, moisture, and the gentle caress of touch. 

The palette of finishes, from glossy to matte, weaves an artistic tapestry that shapes the print’s visage. As coatings kiss the canvas, a metamorphosis transpires, etching resilience into the print’s essence.

Eternal Echoes: Time’s Dance on Canvas

In the embrace of time, canvas prints transform into echoes of eternity. The archival quality is a testament to choices – inks, substrates, coatings, and curation. 

Understanding lightfastness and the fading waltz becomes paramount, a choreography that governs the print’s endurance. The orchestration of permanence harmonizes with the canvas, immortalizing moments that transcend generations.

Innovations and Tomorrow’s Canvas

Canvas printing embarks on an odyssey, sailing towards uncharted technological shores. Emerging technologies unfurl like sails, harnessing the winds of change to reshape the canvas landscape. Ink formulations and color veracity evolve, promising a realm of prints that mirror the vividness of reality. Echoes of sustainability resonate as the canvas industry embraces eco-conscious strides, balancing artistry with environmental stewardship.

The Nexus of Art and Science: Conclusion

Canvas printing beckons as a junction where art and science converge, sparking a symphony of visuals that echo in hearts and minds. An expedition through the scientific tapestry unfurls vistas of craftsmanship otherwise unexplored. As we traverse the labyrinth of pigments, substrates, and technologies, the invitation resonates to embark on a voyage where understanding becomes a compass, guiding the creation of custom prints that transcend imagination.

Standing atop the mountains in the southern highlands of Peru is the 15th-century marvel of the Inca empire, Machu Picchu. Today, the citadel is a global tourist attraction and an icon of precolonial Latin American history – but it was once the royal palace of an emperor.

Our international team of researchers has uncovered the incredible genetic diversity hidden within the ancient remains of those who once called Machu Picchu home. We detail our findings in a study published today in Science Advances.

The puzzling remnants of a royal site

The Inca empire once ruled a vast 2 million square km across the breathtaking Andes mountain range in South America. It was formed in 1438 by the first ruler, Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui, and reached its height in 1533, before colonisation by the Spanish.

At the heart of the empire was the capital city of Cusco, and nearby was Pachacuti’s majestic palace, Machu Picchu.

Machu Picchu was visited by the royal family and guests during the dry season of May to October as a place to feast, dance, sing and hunt. Although these elite Incas were buried in Cusco upon their death, the palace was maintained year-round by a few hundred servants who lived on site. These servants were buried in cemeteries outside the palace walls.

Following Spanish colonisation, knowledge of Machu Picchu was lost to the Western world – only to be rediscovered by adventurers in the early 20th century.

In 1912, the Yale Peruvian Scientific Expedition documented a staggering count of 174 individuals buried on site. These burials were often shallow graves, or were concealed under large boulders or natural rocky overhangs.

While many lacked grave goods, ceramic artefacts were discovered buried alongside some people. These paint a vivid picture of cultural diversity, with styles from coastal and northern regions of Peru, as well as from the highlands of Bolivia near Lake Titicaca.

This was the first clue that Machu Picchu drew people from all reaches of the Inca empire. It suggested the servants who lived at Machu Picchu came from a variety of places, bringing ceramics from their homelands.

However, the artefacts could have also ended up in the area through trade. To find out where these people had come from, we would have to analyse their DNA.

New findings from ancient DNA

We sequenced ancient DNA from the remains of 68 individuals – 34 buried at Machu Picchu and 34 buried in Cusco. Using carbon dating, we dated the remains and found some of these people were buried before the rise of Pachacuti and the Inca empire.

We then compared their DNA with that of Indigenous peoples living in the Andes today (past research has found these genetic lines have continued undisturbed for the past 2,000 years) – as well as to ancestries from more distant regions of South America.

It’s worth noting these “ancestries” are based on DNA and don’t necessarily overlap with the peoples’ cultural identities, although they sometimes would.

Were the people buried at Machu Picchu genetically similar to those who had lived in the area since before Pachacuti’s reign? Or were they related to ancestries from more distant regions?

If the latter was true, we could safely assume they (or their parents) had come to Machu Picchu from faraway lands.

Journeying to a life of servitude

Of all the DNA samples we analysed, we found 17 individuals had ancestry from one of the distant sources tested (coloured on the map below). These included all regions of the Peruvian coast and highlands, as well as the Amazon regions of Peru, Ecuador and Colombia.

Only seven of the buried individuals had ancestry that could be linked to Peru’s vast southern highlands where Machu Picchu and Cusco reside. However, we can’t confirm they were local to Machu Picchu itself.

The remaining 13 individuals had blended ancestry, including from as far away as Brazil and Paraguay. They might have been the offspring of individuals from different lands who met at Machu Picchu – or could be linked to yet unknown South American ancestries.

As for close family relationships, we only discovered one pair: a mother and daughter.

Remarkably, all the individuals were buried together in the major cemeteries, irrespective of their ancestry. This could imply they were considered equal in status to one another, which in turn would suggest they were born elsewhere and arrived at Machu Picchu independently, occasionally forming relationships and having children.

It’s likely these people were from a class of “chosen women” called acllacona, and a similar class of men called yanacona. Individuals in these groups were selected from their homes at a young age and permanently assigned to state, aristocratic or religious service.

After arriving at Machu Picchu, they would have spent the rest of their lives serving the royal estate.

Although we don’t know how much (if any) coercion was involved in the process of these people coming to Machu Picchu, analyses of the bones suggest they lived comfortable lives. Many lived to old age and showed no signs of malnutrition, disease, or injury from warfare or heavy labour.

A diversity hotspot

Importantly, the human remains we found that predated the Inca empire did not exhibit high levels of diversity. This suggests it was indeed the establishment of the Inca empire that led people from far and wide to Machu Picchu.

Further, our examination of individuals from Cusco showed less diversity than at Machu Picchu, but more than other regional sites. This is probably because the extensive highland area had a long history of interactions between different peoples before the rise of the Inca empire.

Our findings paint a captivating picture of Machu Picchu as a true hotspot of diversity within the Inca imperial realm – setting it apart as a culturally rich hub within the ancient landscape.

Roberta Davidson, PhD candidate in Genetic Anthropology, University of Adelaide

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.